Cellulose is the most abundant renewable resource on earth. It is composed of a linear chain of β1-4 glucose units with the repeating unit being cellobiose, which is a glucose dimer having a structure as shown in FIG. 5. The polymer is degraded by a suite of enzymes which include endoglucanases (EG) which randomly hydrolyze the cellulose polymer, and cellobiohydrolases (CBH) which remove terminal cellobiose residues from cellulose. Cellobiose and cello-oligosaccharides are hydrolyzed to glucose by β-glucosidases (BG). All three of these enzymes are necessary for the complete breakdown of cellulose to glucose. For each of these three enzymes different structural variants exist that perform the same function. In addition, fungi and bacteria are known to produce multiple forms of the same structural variants in addition to different structural variants.
Further complicating this system is the fact that some anaerobic bacteria and fungi are known to produce these enzymes in multi-enzyme complexes which contain multiple enzymes all attached to an enzyme scaffold with molecular weights above 2 million daltons. Why is such a complex system of enzymes necessary for such a simple molecule? Some researchers believe that this complexity is due to the recalcitrant nature of the substrate. The cellulose chains form microfibrils that pack into a crystalline matrix via hydrogen bonding of adjacent chains. This structure is highly resistant to chemical or enzymatic degradation.
CBHs are thought to be the key enzyme in the degradation of this crystalline cellulose because of the nature of their enzymatic attack on cellulose. EGs unlike CBHs have an open cleft that attacks the cellulose chain at a perpendicular angle. CBHs attack the chain directly via a tunnel containing the active site. The current thought is that the cellulose chains enter the tunnel and at the same time, adjacent hydrogen bonding is disrupted. Once the cellobiohydrolases have established this “foothold” on the substrate, the EGs can then come in and more readily attack the substrate.
A major deficiency of known CBHs is their low catalytic activity. Some groups argue that the low activity stems from the fact that energy from hydrolysis is transferred to kinetic energy to disrupt hydrogen bonds and enable the enzyme to move along the substrate. CBHs are exo-acting enzymes and are found in 6 of the 90 families of glycosyl hydrolases. They include families 5, 6, 7, 9, 10 and 48. Family 5 contains many different types of glycosyl hydrolases including cellulases, mannanases and xylanases. Although most cellulases in this family are endoglucanases, there are examples of cellobiohydrolases, most notably CelO from Clostridium thermocellum. Family 6 contains only endoglucanases or cellobiohydrolases with more cellobiohydrolase members than endoglucanases. The enzymes have an inverting mechanism and crystallographic studies suggest that the enzyme has a distorted α/β barrel structure containing seven, not eight parallel β-strands. Family 7 enzymes are also composed of both endoglucanases and cellobiohydrolases with more cellobiohydrolases and only known members are from fungi. The enzyme has a retaining mechanism and the crystal structure suggests a β-jellyroll structure. Family 9 contains endoglucanases, cellobiohydrolases and β-glucosidases with a preponderance of endoglucanases. However, Thermobifida fusca produces an endo/exo-1,4-glucanase, the crystal structure of which suggests a (α/α)6 barrel fold. The enzyme has characteristics of both endo and exo-glucanases CBHs. Family 10 contains only 2 members described as cellobiohydrolases with mainly the rest described as xylanases. Cellobiohydrolases and xylanases from family 10 have activity on methyl-umbelliferyl cellobioside. Family 48 contains mainly bacterial and anaerobic fungal cellobiohydrolases and endoglucanases. The structure is a (α/α)6 barrel fold similar to family 9.
There is a need for less expensive and renewable sources of fuel for road vehicles. New fuel sources will be more attractive if they produce nonharmful endproducts after combustion. Ethanol offers an attractive alternative to petroleum based fuels and can be obtained through the fermentation of monomeric sugars derived from starch or lignocellulose. However, current economics do not support the widespread use of ethanol due to the high cost of generating it. One area of research aimed at decreasing costs is enhancement of the technical efficacy of the enzymes that can be used to generate fermentable sugars from biomass, e.g., lignocellulose-comprising compositions. The development of enzymes that more efficiently digest biomass, e.g., feedstocks, will translate to decreased ethanol production costs. More efficient processes will decrease the United State's reliance on foreign oil and the price fluctuations that may be related to that reliance. Using cleaner fuels for transportation like bioethanol also may decrease net CO2 emissions that are believed to be partially responsible for global warming.
Due to the complexity of biomass, its conversion to monomer sugars involves the action of several different enzyme classes, as illustrated in FIGS. 6, 7, 8, 62 and 63, which includes a schematic of the enzymes involved in digestion of cellulose (FIGS. 6, 7 and 63) and hemicellulose (FIGS. 8 and 62). Biomass is composed of both carbohydrate and non-carbohydrate materials. The carbohydrates can be sub-divided into cellulose, a linear polymer of β-1,4 linked glucose moieties, and hemicellulose, a complex branched polymer consisting of a main chain of β-1,4 linked xylose with branches of arabinose, galactose, mannose and glucuronic acids. On occasion the xylose may be acetylated and arabinose may contain ferulic or cinnamic acid esters to other hemicellulose chains or to lignin. The last major constituent of biomass is lignin, a highly crosslinked phenylpropanoid structure. Cellulases convert cellulose to glucose and are composed of: (1) endoglucanases, cleaving internal β-1,4 glycosidic linkages resulting in shorter chain glucooligosaccharides, (2) cellobiohydrolases, acting on the ends of the smaller oligosaccharides resulting in cellobiose (disaccharide), and (3) β-glucosidase, converting the soluble oligosaccharides (DP2 to DP7) to glucose. Single component enzymes have been shown to only partially digest cellulose and the concerted action of all enzymes is required for complete conversion to glucose. Many more enzymes are required to digest hemicellulose to sugar monomers including xylanase, xylosidase, arabinofuranosidase, mannanase, galactosidase and glucuronidase. Non-glycosyl hydrolases such as acetyl xylan esterase and ferulic acid esterase may also be involved.